Self-esteem is essential for an individual’s psychological well-being, in addition to being an emotional necessity. Without a certain level of self-esteem, life can become extremely difficult and painful, and many fundamental needs may remain unmet.

The value of self-esteem lies in its capacity to motivate individuals toward high achievement and morally upright behavior. Studies have shown that low self-esteem is associated with reduced motivation, whereas it is positively correlated with happiness, positive assertiveness, enhanced self-worth, and well-being. A sufficient level of self-esteem is a fundamental prerequisite for psychological health and effective functioning.

Mental health specialists consider self-esteem a basic human need, included by Maslow in the hierarchy of needs he proposed. It comprises two types:

1. the need for respect from others; and

2. the need for self-respect.

Respect from others requires recognition, acceptance, social status, and admiration, while self-respect requires competence, confidence, skill, achievement, independence, and freedom. When these needs are not satisfied, the individual experiences frustration, weakness, and a sense of inferiority.

Self-esteem is a sign of an individual’s psychological health, for each person has a fundamental drive that directs behavior—the drive toward self-actualization. As a result of this drive, the individual constantly strives to understand and analyze oneself, recognize personal abilities and potentials, and evaluate and guide oneself. Self-esteem refers to expectations of success in personally and socially significant tasks, as well as the presence of positive feelings toward oneself, self-acceptance, and the perception of being accepted by others
(Mohamed Abu Halawah & Atef El-Sherbini, 2016).

Unfortunately, self-esteem includes its opposite—self-disesteem or self-hatred. Because humans are naturally imperfect and prone to error, it is easy for a person to become trapped in a cycle of anxiety and depression due to such thoughts. Self-esteem is positive but fragile, and its other side is self-frustration
(Albert Ellis, 2004).

There is also another side to high self-esteem: evaluating its effects is complex because it is linked to various factors. Many individuals with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and positive qualities, including narcissistic, defensive, and arrogant individuals
(Baumeister et al., 2003).

 

The Concept of Self-Esteem

Rosenberg (1979) defined self-esteem as an individual’s overall positive or negative attitudes toward oneself. High self-esteem means that the individual considers oneself valuable and important, whereas low self-esteem means dissatisfaction with, rejection, or contempt for the self. Thus, a person’s self-esteem reflects how one believes others see and evaluate them
(Rosenberg, 1979).

Lawrence (1981, p. 245) defined it as a person’s evaluation of oneself on a continuum ranging from positive to negative or somewhere in between.

Ahmed Rajeh (1985, p. 132) defined the self-concept as an individual’s idea of oneself—i.e., the self-image formed through one’s physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics, along with the values and social norms to which one belongs.

Reasoner (2000) defined it as the evaluation individuals place upon themselves, including attitudes of self-acceptance or self-rejection and the extent to which one feels worthy, competent, and effective
(Reasoner, 2000).

Ranjit Singh Malhi and Robert W. (2005) defined self-esteem comprehensively as a person’s overall evaluation of oneself—either positively or negatively. It refers to the extent to which one believes in one’s worth, capability, and right to life. Simply put, self-esteem is fundamentally a person’s sense of competence and value.

Hamed Zahran (2005) gave a functional and organizational definition of the self-concept as a construct that shapes the changing experiential world in which the individual exists and organizes and determines behavior.

Sameera Abu Ghazala (2010, p. 61) defined self-esteem as the idea the individual perceives about how others view them, whether positively or negatively.

Al-Farhati (2012, p. 169) defined it as the set of attitudes and beliefs invoked by a person when facing the surrounding world, providing mental preparation for responding and behaving according to expected success, acceptance, and personal strength.

Taiba Abdelsalam (2014, p. 6) described it as the evaluation—positive or negative—that a person makes about situations encountered in life based on personal experiences and interactions within the work environment.

According to APA (2015, p. 955), self-esteem is the degree to which the traits and characteristics in the self-concept are viewed positively. It reflects a person's physical self-image, accomplishments, abilities, values, and perceived success throughout life, as well as how others view and respond to the individual. The more positive these cumulative perceptions are, the higher the individual’s self-esteem.

 

Components of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem has two essential components:

1. Self-efficacy – the confidence that one can adapt to and handle life’s core challenges.

2. Self-worth – unconditional acceptance of oneself, coupled with a belief in one’s worthiness and the right to succeed in life.

Both self-efficacy and self-worth enable a person to feel satisfied with oneself
(Ranjit Singh Malhi & Robert W., 2005).

 

Characteristics of Self-Esteem

According to Ranjit Singh Malhi & Robert W. (2005, pp. 3–4):

• Self-esteem is evaluative in nature—it is the evaluation of oneself based on self-image. It can be inferred from the way a person behaves.

• It is a variable trait subject to internal and external influences.

• It varies with situations and time.

• It may fluctuate daily depending on experiences and emotions.

• It can be acquired and enhanced over time.

Self-esteem may refer to the general self or to specific domains and can be viewed as a hierarchical structure consisting of three main components:

1. Performance Self-Esteem

Refers to an individual's sense of general competence, including cognitive abilities, academic performance, self-regulation, confidence, self-efficacy, and motivation. Individuals with high performance self-esteem view themselves as intelligent and capable.

 

2. Social Self-Esteem

Refers to how individuals perceive others’ perceptions of them. What matters here is perception—not actual reality. Feeling valued by significant others increases social self-esteem. Those with low social self-esteem often experience social anxiety, confusion, or excessive self-consciousness in public settings.

 

3. Physical Self-Esteem

Refers to the individual’s perception of their body, including athletic abilities, physical attractiveness, body image, and associated racial or ethnic feelings
(Shane Lopez & Snyder, 2013).

 

The Importance of Self-Esteem

Ranjit Singh Malhi & Robert W. (2005, pp. 7–10) indicate that self-esteem is the key to success and profoundly impacts all aspects of life:

1. Self-Esteem and Mental Health

A positive self-view has enormous benefits for mental health. Individuals with high self-esteem tend to be happier and mentally healthier. Low self-esteem is linked to psychological distress, depression, anxiety, tension, irritability, aggression, shyness, loneliness, alienation, dissatisfaction with life, destructive behaviors such as alcohol use, substance abuse, eating disorders, and even suicide.

Thus, high self-esteem is a fundamental determinant of mental health.

 

2. Self-Esteem and Society

According to Shane Lopez & Snyder (2013, p. 402), high self-esteem plays an important social immunizing role, protecting individuals and society from many dangerous behaviors. Many social problems—substance abuse, violence, teenage pregnancy, academic failure, crime—originate in low self-esteem. Those who feel rejected or excluded often suffer from emotional problems, negative moods, and physical illness.

 

3. Self-Esteem, Work, and Productivity

Research indicates that employees with high self-esteem tend to be more productive, respond better to negative feedback, show less sensitivity to prolonged stress, are more decisive, less defensive, and more adaptive to change.
(Carranza et al., 2009)

Conversely, those with low self-esteem feel incompetent and incapable of performing tasks.

 

4. Self-Esteem and Personal Relationships

Seligman notes that healthy relationships and compassionate behavior stem from individuals with self-respect and a sense of personal worth
(Al-Farhati, 2012, p. 184).

People with high self-esteem tend to accept others, while those with low self-esteem engage in belittling others, mocking them, or attempting to dominate them
(Ibrahim Younis, 2017).

 

5. Self-Esteem and Behavior

Individuals with low self-esteem view themselves as inferior to others, affecting their behavior. They may lack enthusiasm and positive social interaction.
Those with high self-esteem behave more positively and strive for excellence while avoiding actions that reflect cognitive or behavioral dysfunction
(Al-Farhati, 2012, p. 150).

 

6. Self-Esteem and Personality Traits

People with high self-esteem tend to be confident, responsible, understanding, and optimistic (Alaa Kafafi, 2009).
They respect themselves because they possess accurate awareness of their abilities and emotions
(Al-Farhati, 2012).

They are:

• loving and lovable

• self-directed

• adventurous

• social and extroverted

• decisive

• at peace with themselves

• self-accepting

• deserving of life
  (Malhi & Robert W., 2005)

People with low self-esteem, on the other hand, tend to avoid risks, fear competition, exhibit sarcasm, lack decisiveness, avoid initiative, feel pessimistic, shy, indecisive, and feel unworthy of love. They blame others for their shortcomings and have low ambition. They show greater sensitivity to criticism and reluctance to change
(Al-Farhati, 2012).

 

Factors Influencing Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is affected by many intertwined factors: heredity, geographical, material, and social environment, key individuals (parents, teachers, peers), maturity, learning, needs (safety, love, self-respect), self-actualization, beliefs, values, attitudes, and morals
(Qahtan Al-Zahir, 2017).

Self-esteem is shaped by both internal factors (personal thoughts, aspirations, achievements) and external factors (parents, teachers, significant others).

Figure 1 illustrates factors affecting self-esteem
(Malhi & Robert W., 2005).

External factors play a crucial role in shaping self-esteem in childhood, especially in the first 3–4 years. For adults, internal factors become more decisive.

Thus, one can "re-educate" oneself to overcome internal obstacles and negative thoughts that block self-esteem
(Malhi & Robert W., 2005).

Other contributing factors include:

• Personal factors (abilities, potentials, opportunities).

• Environmental factors (people one interacts with)
  (Sameera Abu Ghazala, 2019).

According to Lawrence Pervin (2010), individuals have a global self-esteem, and the effect of events depends on their personal significance. Self-esteem is greatly affected by success or failure in domains central to a person’s sense of self-worth and is less affected in irrelevant domains.

 

The Pathological Inner Critic

The pathological critic is a term introduced by psychologist Eugene Sagan to describe the internal negative voice that attacks and judges you. Everyone has an internal critic, but the pathological, irrational critic is louder and harsher in those with low self-esteem
(McKay & Fanning, 2019).

This critic:

• insults with labels like “stupid,” “ugly,” “foolish,” “clumsy,” “lazy”

• reminds you of past mistakes

• imposes unrealistic perfectionism

• compares your achievements to others

• ignores your strengths

• blames you for everything

• magnifies your weaknesses (e.g., “You always say stupid things,” “You’re totally unreliable”)
  (Malhi & Robert W., 2005)

Gender Differences in Self-Esteem

Some theories propose that males and females differ in primary sources of self-esteem:

• Girls are more influenced by social relationships.

• Boys are more influenced by objective achievements.

Research shows that in adolescence:

• High self-esteem in boys can be predicted by orientation toward power and competence.

• High self-esteem in girls can be predicted by orientation toward social connectedness.

Women tend to be less satisfied with body image, give more negative evaluations of certain physical attributes, worry more about appearance, undergo more cosmetic procedures, and associate body dissatisfaction with feelings of being overweight
(Lopez & Snyder, 2013).

Self-Esteem: Trait vs. State

A major debate in the field concerns whether self-esteem is a stable trait or a variable state.

Most personality theories view self-esteem as relatively stable—if you have high self-esteem today, you are likely to have it tomorrow. It forms gradually from accumulated experiences, repeated successes, and positive evaluations from significant others.

Some studies argue that self-esteem may function as a dependent variable rather than an independent one.
Thus, it can be both a trait and a state
(Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).

Although one may generally feel good about oneself, there are times when doubts or self-dislike emerge. These fluctuations are linked to hypersensitivity to social evaluation and increased hostility or emotional turbulence
(Kernis, 1993).

Levels of Self-Esteem

Smith identified three levels of self-esteem:

1. High self-esteem — individuals perceive themselves as important, worthy, and capable, with a clear understanding of who they are.

2. Low self-esteem — individuals consider themselves unimportant, unlovable, and incapable, believing others have better qualities.

3. Moderate self-esteem — individuals fall between the two extremes
   (Zahran, 2005).

Theories Explaining Self-Esteem

1. Rosenberg's Theory (1965)

Rosenberg linked self-evaluation to social norms and focused particularly on adolescents. High self-esteem indicates self-respect; low self-esteem indicates dissatisfaction.

He studied the dynamics of developing a positive self-image during adolescence and emphasized the family's role. He considered self-esteem an attitude toward oneself, similar to attitudes toward other objects, though quantitatively different.

Self-esteem, according to him, is “the evaluation the individual makes and ordinarily keeps to oneself”
(Kafafi, 1989).

 

2. Carl Rogers’ Self-Theory

One of the most comprehensive self-theories, based on counseling and psychotherapy experience.

Components include:

• the self

• experience

• the person

• behavior

• the phenomenal field

Feryuno expanded this theory by identifying different levels of the self:

1. Public/social self

2. Private conscious self

3. Insightful self

4. Deep (repressed) self

5. Private self-concept — considered the most critical, containing socially undesirable or shameful experiences located at the boundary between consciousness and unconsciousness. The self works hard to prevent these elements from emerging
   (Zahran, 2005).

 

3. Coopersmith’s Theory (1967)

Coopersmith viewed self-esteem as a multidimensional concept, requiring multiple approaches. It includes both evaluative attitudes and defensive reactions.

He identified two expressions of self-esteem:

• Self-report — how individuals describe themselves

• Behavioral expression — observable behaviors reflecting self-esteem

Coopersmith proposed two roots of self-esteem:

1. The degree of acceptance and respect from significant others

2. The individual’s history of success and its objective indicators

He distinguished between:

• True self-esteem — genuinely feeling valuable

• Defensive self-esteem — feeling worthless but attempting to mask it

He proposed four determinants of self-esteem:
success, values, aspirations, and defenses
(Kafafi, 1989).

 

4. Epstein’s Theory

Epstein argued that individuals develop a sense of self-worth unintentionally based on life experiences, especially success-related ones. Self-esteem becomes more complex with age but remains grounded in early childhood experiences and the degree of acceptance or rejection by significant others
(Mamdouha Salama, 1991).

 

5. Zeller’s Theory (1969)

Zeller viewed self-esteem as arising within the social context in which a person lives. Self-esteem serves as a mediator between the self and the environment, enabling individuals with well-integrated personalities to function more effectively in society
(Kafafi, 1989).

 

Conclusion

A person’s self-esteem is the cornerstone of personality. When individuals evaluate themselves realistically, they understand their strengths and weaknesses, accept themselves, and strive for self-improvement. In such cases, criticism, blame, or bullying cannot easily harm them. They move forward with confidence, improving every aspect of their lives—relationships, behavior, productivity, and well-being.

 

المراجع:

 

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المراجع باللغة الانجليزية

 

·        ‏APA Dictionary of Psychology

 

·         Baumeister, RF, Campbell, JD, Krueger, JI, & Vohs, KD (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles. Psychological science in the public interest, 4(1), 1-44.‏

 

·        Carranza, F. D., You, S., Chhuon, V., & Hudley, C. (2009). Mexican American Adolescents 'academic Achievement And Aspirations: The Role Of Perceived Parental Educational Involvement, Acculturation, And Self-Esteem. Adolescence, 44(174).‏

 

·        Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J. (1991). Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 60(6), 895.‏

 

·        Kernis, M. H. (1993). The roles of stability and level of self-esteem in psychological functioning. In Self-esteem (pp. 167-182). Springer, Boston, MA.‏

 

·        Lawrence, D. (1981). The development of a self‐esteem questionnaire. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(2), 245-251.‏

 

·        Reasoner, R. W. (2000). Self-Esteem and Youth: What Research Has to Say About It. International Council of Self- esteem.

 

·        Rosenberg, M. ) 1979 ) .Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.

 

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·        Wells, L. E., & Marwell, G. (1976). Self-esteem. Beverly Hills.‏